Should Animals be used in Medical Research Term Paper

Should Animals be used in Medical Research - Term Paper Example This essay stresses that in their strong defense proponents of this perspective argue that various measures are in place to ensure animals used in research are handled in the most humane way possible. First, animals should only be used under the condition that the solution can only be found through them, and no other method or way can be applied in such studies to give accurate information. Secondly, to help reduce the harm, three principles are applied. The first one is replacement where researchers should endeavor to find alternatives before they settle on animals as the subjects. In this regard, human volunteers, as well as computer techniques, can be used in place of animals to minimize any likely harm they may be exposed to. This paper makes a conclusion that the question of whether animals should be used in medical research has been clearly answered by the two arguments discussed. As seen, the debate is deeper than it can be imagined. However, what comes out precisely is the theme of morality vs. science. While the first perspective insists that it violates animal rights for the benefit of humanity, the second perspective counter neutralizes this by asking if it is moral to watch humans suffer yet animals can save them. Judging from the justifications presented by the latter, it is proper to draw a conclusion that animals should be used for medical researches especially when the three highlighted principles are observed. This way, the human species will stay healthy to protect the animals.

Contributions to Misunderstanding Psychology Essay Example for Free

Contributions to Misunderstanding Psychology Essay Rose (1992) has accused psychology of â€Å"Engineering the Human Soul† (p. 351). This is a very odd statement for a sociologist to make because science, whether hard or social, by definition, requires conclusions to be based on use of the scientific method. Alas, the hypothesis that there is a human soul is one that that the scientific method cannot address because there is no way to provide empirical evidence that either confirms or disconfirms it. Indeed, even the phrenologists Gall and Spurzheim (discussed below), who mapped the brain into areas controlling all sorts of human attributes, found an area for â€Å"spirituality† (Myers, 2004), but not for the soul. Rose is, however, in the company of a medical internist with a Ph. D. from Yale in physical chemistry, i. e. , Collins (2007, as cited in Snyder, 2007), who has claimed there is evidence that â€Å"moral law is implanted in our brains by God† (p. 6). Nonetheless, despite psychology being unable to engineer an entity for which there is no scientific evidence, one purpose of this paper is to argue that Rose (1992), along with other critics of psychological research, has failed to recognize that the continued influence of the studies of individual differences beyond the early part of the last century, mainly the development of tests to measure intelligence, i. e. , IQ testing, has not been on psychology, but on education. Indeed, later psychological research on intelligence and cognitive development has been largely ignored in education (Perlmutter Burrell, 1999). There is no disagreement that IQ testing had and continues to have a negative influence on education, but this paper addresses the waning of the influences of IQ testing within psychology itself not long after the development of these tests. What is psychology? Rose (1992) defined psychology as the study of individual differences, based on a â€Å"paradigmatic technique of . . . the psychological ‘test’ . . . (pp. 358-359). The goal of psychology, according to Rose, is â€Å"the isolation, intensification, and inscription of human difference† (p. 359). This definition is not the same as the one used in most textbooks on introductory psychology, where the discipline is defined as â€Å"the science of behavior and mental processes† (Myers, 2004). While psychological questions have been of interest from the time of the ancient Greek philosophers, psychology as a science did not develop until the latter part of the 19th century (Myers, 2004). Psychologists eventually conducted research in areas that began in other disciplines – and also came to be blamed for the wretched excesses of still other disciplines, notably education. In the early 19th century, phrenologists Gall and Spurzheim mapped out brain areas supposedly controlling attributes from acquisitiveness to sublimity and measured people on these attributes by feeling bumps on their heads (Myers, 2004). Despite the embarrassment phrenology caused scientists, late in the 19th century French and German neurologists, notably Brocca and Wertheimer, provided evidence of left-hemisphere dominance in tasks involving language (Deutsch Springer, 1997). They used autopsy findings of those who suffered language deficits following strokes to areas in the left cerebral hemisphere (the dominant hemisphere for more than 90% and 70% of right- and left-handed people respectively). These findings were followed by further research on deficits in spatial abilities following strokes in the right cerebral (usually non-dominant) hemisphere (Deutsch Springer, 1997). In the next century, researchers studied the performance of those who underwent a surgical procedure where the connecting fibers (the corpus colossus) between the two hemispheres were severed to control the spread of severe seizures (Deutsch Springer, 1999). Later research, using equipment such as evoked potentials, was conducted using samples from the general population. The research provided evidence not that only one hemisphere was activated during performance of most tasks but evidence that one hemisphere was more activated than the other, for example, in language comprehension, the left hemisphere is more activated, but the right hemisphere also is activated in comprehending the emotional, metaphoric, and humorous content of language (Deutsch Springer, 1997). Individual differences also were rare, for example, listening to music results in greater activation in the right than left hemisphere, except there is the reverse pattern for trained musicians (Deutsch Springer, 1999). However, the history of research related to the cerebral hemispheres is an example of psychologists falsely being blamed for the nonsense propagated by those in education that there were left- and right-brained people – and teachers somehow were supposed to adjust their teaching for their right-brained students (Connell, 1990). In outlining the history of psychology, introductory textbooks place its beginnings in Wundt’s establishment of a laboratory in Vienna in 1879 for the purpose of applying the scientific method to the study of human mental processes: â€Å"On a December day in 1879 . . . Wundt was seeking to measure . . . the fastest and simplest mental processes. Thus began what many consider psychology’s first experiment† (Myers, 2004, p. 4). However, those in other disciplines, such as Rose (1992), seem to believe not only that psychology began – and ended with the early work of those studying individual differences, but also that research in psychology actually is used in education. Individual Differences One important difference between the early work of neurologists on the human cerebral hemispheres described above and early work on individual differences is that the former research was based on beginning with basic or shared mental processes. Put another way, the law of parsimony is that main effects are studied prior to interactions (Kirk, 1995). The early work on individual differences in intelligence began prior to research on basic cognitive processing. Galton’s definition of intelligence (White, 2006) was based on an assumption drawn from Darwin’s evolutionary theory of the survival of the fittest, both between- and within-species (1859, as cited in Myers, 2004). Between-species, humans clearly are advantaged with superior intellect. However, if human intelligence had been defined as those characteristics that increase the probability of an individual’s survival, predominant attributes would be those related to the attainment of economic and political power. From the beginnings of civilization, world history has been a struggle for power, with members of prevailing powerful groups inhumanely dominating members of less powerful groups (Braudel Mayne, 2003), a concept perhaps best expressed by John Travolta in Saturday Night Fever as â€Å"everybody always has to have somebody to dump on† (Wexler, 1977). Being powerful certainly does enhance one’s chances of survival, but how did anyone reach the conclusion that power was related to what we usually think of as intellect?

An Essay Bribery Act 2010

An Essay Bribery Act 2010

Pressures Of Society :: essays research papers

Pressures of Society Our behavior usually is controlled and decided by us, but that is not always the case. As we saw in the play Marty's behavior was not always his own decision. The behavior of any person can be greatly manipulated by society. There are a few points in the play and in normal life that can prove this statement is true. Marty's actions were greatly influenced by the views of his family and friends. Marty was forced into many actions by the people around him. A person will consider what other tells them as much as what they believe in themselves. Marty was always a quiet man that didn't like going out, it was his family and friends that told him to do so. It was his decision, but it wasn't his choice. Marty did not want to go anywhere yet he did just because his friends and family told him so. It is not always easy to refuse such thing, Marty had to make a decision and decided he should go out. By analyzing the pros and cons he made a decision, basing it on knowledge and commonsense, after all going out is not a bad thing. But what if there is no decision? What if the person is forced to do something that he does not agree with? This can be blamed on the pressure of society as well, sometimes you do something that you know you don't want just because someone is forcing you. Marty showed such behavior many times throughout the play. It was not always a conscious decision every time that Marty did what he did, he based many of his decisions just on what his friends and family told him. It is this play that made me think, that our decisions and choices are based on what we think just as much as what others think. It is not always your choice and it is not always what you want that you do. For example I am writing this essay because someone told me so, and it is not my choice either to do it or not, I can decide if to do so but that doesn't leave with other options. Some actions people do are subconsciously inputted by society, that means that there was no specific someone that told you what to do, yet you still do it because society has set this standard. This type of action can be seen in anyone at every given day. It can range from the simpler things like dressing up, and looking good all

Critical Essay on “Annals of Labor Nobodies”

John Bowe’s â€Å"Annals of Labor Nobodies† is a very ugly article describing the virtual slavery of agricultural workers. Reminiscent of public attitude toward and awareness of domestic abuse and pedophilia in most of the Twentieth Century, modern slavery is buried deep in a cesspool of ignorance, apathy and denial. Those at the â€Å"top of the heap† are protected by â€Å"buffer layers† and deniability. Fear and brutality are tools employed to maintain the silence. Resources and alternatives for victims are scarce or nonexistent. These are among the themes presented by Boles in his review of dirty secret of one of America’s largest industries, fresh produce production; while he presents a little hope, the situation will continue to exist. South Florida is one of the nation’s greatest citrus and tomato production areas and â€Å"ground zero for modern slavery† (Bowe, 3). Bowe describes the plight of the undocumented Mexican and Central American workers from the time of departure from their homes to their arrival in South Florida. It is a story of an â€Å"opportunity† to terrific homeland poverty which can be worse than what they left. Workers are conned and exploited throughout their journey, paying exorbitant sums to every one in the vicious chain. They are so impoverished and terrified that slave labor is their only option. As a Border Patrol agent remarked â€Å"They’re controllable. There’s no escape† (s). There has been a great deal of consolidation of the produce farms as well as their huge customers. There are many familiar names in the food chain: ConAgra, Cargill, Tropicana, Minute Maid, Coke, Pepsi and Taco Bell. All claim a â€Å"hands off† to the issue of slave labor picking their tomatoes and oranges. The industry has long enjoyed special status exempting it from many labor laws, including overtime pay, workers’ compensation and the right to organize. Unfortunately although the price of the produce may increase, the price of labor decreases due to the large pool of workers coming from Mexico and Central America. In 2000 the Trafficking Victims Act was made into law; unfortunately the usual congressional deal-making resulted in exempting everyone except the labor contractors from fines and imprisonment. The cases are difficult to make. Victims and witnesses are too terrified to testify. Even if they were willing and able to testify their migratory work patterns make them difficult to find. As usual the blanket of â€Å"limited resources† in law enforcement as well as state and federal prosecution offices is used but not believed. Paraphrasing one anonymous laborer, they and their plight is virtually invisible to the outside world. Slow change is coming about and with it a shred of hope for those enslaved. Legal and social service agencies are starting to reach this dark world, and loose coalitions of workers are growing. According to one former tomato picker â€Å"change won’t come from Washington or from the lawyers. It will come from people in the field. If you change people’s consciousness, the people themselves will take care of it† (6).   He is right, of course, and the hope is if change won’t come from Washington and the lawyers, at least they will be an ally and not an impediment. After the sentencing of convicted human traffickers the federal trial judge mentioned to the U.S. Attorneys prosecuting the case that they should not exhaust the â€Å"limited resources† prosecuting low-level thugs and enforcers. The judge, likely mindful of the powerful federal conspiracy laws, stated â€Å"others at a higher level of the fruit picking industry seem complicit in one way or another with how these activities occur† (11). References Bowe, John. â€Å"Annals of Labor Nobodies†. April 21, 2003.      

What Is a Gap Year Should You Take One

What Is a Gap Year Should You Take One SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Taking a gap year after high school is an option that more and more young adultsare choosing each year. Whether you want to learn outside the classroom, uncoveryour passions, or just copy Malia Obama, you can pursueall three goals by deferring college enrollment for a year. Gap years look different for everyone, but they all share an emphasis on experiential learning and personal development. This guide will explore what a gap year is, as well as discuss some of itspros and cons. If you’re thinking of taking a gap year or are simply interested inlearning more about it, read on for a full investigation into this growing trend. What Is a Gap Year? According to the American Gap Year Association (AGA), a gap year is an â€Å"experiential semester of year ‘on,’ typically taken between high school and college in order to deepen practical, professional, and personal awareness.† AGA emphasizes that a gap year is a year on, rather a year off, to combat the notion that students are taking a year-long vacation from schooling. Rather, students who take time away between high school and college design their year with specific goals in mind. They use thetime to gain professional skills, volunteer for an important cause, or travel the world, to name just a few popular gap year activities. Because gap years often require some financial investment from the student, they are typically not an available option for everyone. While scholarships and stipends are increasingly available, the ability to take a gap year still implies a certain amount of privilege. Volunteer programs at home or abroad are especially out of reachto students who areunable tocommit months of their time to working or traveling without pay. If you are able to take a gap year, you can fillyour year in a variety of ways, depending on your interests and goals. Let’s take a look at some of the most popular gap year activities. Before diving headfirst into a gap year, you should set specific goals for your "year on." What Can You Do During a Gap Year? Gap year activities vary widely, but most people are looking to experience personal, professional, and educational growth. When planning a gap year, you might try to gain work experience, develop professional skills, explore a personal interest, volunteer for an important cause, or travel the world. 1. Gain Work Experience While options for paid work aren’t as plentiful for high school graduates as they are for college graduates, you may be able to find paid employment. By spending the year working, you can save money for college, gain professional experience, and clarify what you want to study in college. Given the high cost of private colleges, you may not want to attend until you clarifyyour career goals. Working for a year can help you explore and narrow down your professional interests. You could work locally in a business or organization in your town. You can also explore jobs in other cities or countries at companies or nonprofit organizations. Another option for high school graduates is providing childcare locally or abroad as an au pair. 2. Develop Professional Skills Beyond getting a job, you can explore programs centered on skills development and career exploration. Some organizations charge a sizeable fee, while others are geared toward low-income graduates. Year Up, for instance, aims to provide low-income young adults with hands-on skills development and corporate internships for college credit. Job Corps offers training programs in over 100 technical areas. For wilderness and leadership skills, Outward Bound and National Outdoor Leadership School are popular options. Students with the means and interest to work internationally, furthermore, could develop skills working in a non-profit through an organization like AFS Intercultural Programs. Not only do these programs offer skills training, but many give you college credits that transfer when you matriculate the next year. Do you love camping? Some gap year programs help you develop wilderness and leadership skills. 3. Explore a Personal Interest Another popular motivation for taking a gap year is to explore a personal passion. According to Harvard, some of its students who took a gap year engaged in â€Å"drama, figure skating, health-care, archeological exploration, kibbutz life, language study, mineralogical research, missionary work, music, non-profit groups, child welfare programs, political campaigns, rebuilding schools...sports, steel drumming, storytelling, swing dance, university courses, and writing- to name some chosen at random.† When planning a gap year, you should think about what you love to do. If you could spend a day doing whatever you wanted, what would you choose? Even if you're not sure, you should search around gap year organizations to find opportunities that would let you practice, explore, and discover personal passions. 4. Volunteer for a Cause Another popular gap year activity that combines skills development with exploring a personal passion is volunteering. There are lots of opportunities to volunteer for social causes, like conservation, humanitarian relief, building infrastructure, girls’ empowerment, education, agriculture, or animal care. There are a variety of volunteer programs available, many of which you can find throughUSA Gap Year Fair. City Year, for example, places young adults in schools throughout the U.S. to help out in the classroom. International programs, like Volunteers for Peace, Global Service Corps, and Restless Development, appointyoung adultsin locations across the world to volunteer with kids, teach English, work on environmental restoration, or assist with social projects like HIV/AIDS awareness. Some of these volunteer programs are free, while others charge a considerable fee (not including airfare). By researchingvarious opportunities, you can find an option that both aligns with your goals and is financially feasible. Are you interested in animal care or environmental conservation? Some programs take you across the world to volunteer at animal sanctuaries. 5. Travel the World Finally, some young adults have one main goal during their gap year: to see the world. They hit the open road, backpack across continents, and visit global landmarks. Budget travelers might take advantage of cheap or free lodging options through CouchSurfing or WWOOF, an organization where people exchange farm work for lodging. Travelers use a gap year to learn more about the world, experience new cultures, and discover new interests. By experiencing new ways of being, they learn more about themselves and their role in the world. Potential Benefits of a Gap Year More and more students are taking gap years between high school and college, and an increasing number of colleges are explicitly encouraging the practice. Why are students attracted to this option, and what are some benefits of taking a gap year before entering college? Read on to learn about six major potential benefits of taking a gap year after high school. 1. Gain New Skills Through Experience Gap years offer an opportunity for experiential learning. They allow you to step out of the classroom and learn new skills and ideas through doing. You might find yourself in entirely new situations that call for unique problem-solving skills and a change inperspective. Whether you choose to work, volunteer, or travel, you’ll encounter new challenges and develop skills to overcome them. These new experiences, furthermore, might help shape your academic direction when you arrive on the college campus. Are you feeling foggy about what you want to study at college? Spending a year developing new skills can part the clouds and clarify what you want to do for the next few years. 2. Save Money for College Gap years don’t have to cost thousands of dollars. On the contrary, you might take this time to get a job, gain professional experience, and make money. Gainful employment can allow you to save money for college, get experience in a work environment, and clarify your professional goals. Job board websites like Idealist and Snagajob list opportunities that are available to high school graduates. 3. Learn About New Cultures Many students go through eighteen years of schooling in the same place with the same group of people. By taking a gap year, you can step out of your comfort zone and into an entirely new culture. Even if you’re not traveling internationally, you may experience a new culture by joining a workplace or taking part in volunteer gap year programs. You could learn new customs, try new foods, acquire a different language, or simply open your eyes to new ways of being in the world. Your gap year experience can broaden your horizons and transform your perspective on both yourself and the world around you. 4. Make New Friends Just as you can gain new experiences on a gap year, you can also meet new people of all different ages and walks of life. By building meaningful relationships, you can experience a great deal of personal growth and establish a network of support asyou navigate the next few years of your life. Whether you meet coworkers, fellow volunteers, or a home-stay family in another country, you and the people around you will benefit from forging new connections and friendships. During a gap year, you can make new friends and learn about people from all walks of life. 5. Refresh and Recharge Before College A gap year can be a great way to recharge after manyyears of schooling. Rather than immediately jumping into the next four years of your education, you can take a break from the classroom and rejuvenate your personal interests and motivations. Many selective schools, including Princeton and Harvard, encourage accepted students to take a gap year before enrolling. Harvard says, â€Å"Perhaps the best way of all to get the full benefit of a â€Å"time-off† is to postpone entrance to college for a year.† Harvard’s newspaper, The Crimson, reported that â€Å"students who had taken a year off found the experience â€Å"so valuable that they would advise all Harvard students to consider it.† ...One student, noting that the majority of her friends will simply spend eight consecutive terms at Harvard, ‘wondered if they ever get the chance to catch their breath.’† Some schools have even introduced â€Å"bridge programs† that offer a year of domestic or international service to accepted students before they matriculate on campus. Studies have shown that students who take a gap year before starting college have higher motivation and graduation rateson average than students who don’t. Taking this break from the classroom can help recharge your batteries and allow you to discover intereststhat motivate your studies once you arrive on campus. 6. Grow and Mature Putting all of the above benefits together, you can conclude that a thoughtfully planned gap year can be a tremendous opportunity for personal growth and increased self-awareness. Whatever you choose to do during your gap year, you’ll probably find yourself in new surroundings, like a workplace, school in a different city, or an entirely new culture. Simply planning a gap year can be an empowering experience, as it’s an unconventional path that requires a lot of thought and reflection. After planning and carrying out your year, you may show up to college with a more solid sense of personal identity and clearer understanding of your personal, academic, and professional goals. Keeping all of these benefits in mind, let’s also consider some potential drawbacks of taking a gap year. What are some possible downsides to this plan? A gap year can bean opportunity for significant personal growth. Potential Drawbacks of a Gap Year Taking a gap year has both pros and cons, and you should consider both carefully if you’re deciding whether or not to take a gap year before entering college. Below are the main potential downsides of taking a gap year. 1. Financial Expenses While there are lots of enticing gap year programs, they might be a lot more expensive than you realize. Many programs charge a sizeable fee for you to volunteer, and this fee doesn’t always include transportation. To volunteer in Cambodia for two weeks with Global Service Corps, for instance, you’d have to pay $2,000, and this fee doesn’t include airfare or insurance. When considering a gap year program, you should be realistic about how you’re going to pay for it. You might do a cost-benefit analysis to see if the experience is worth it. If you find that it’s not, you may instead plan to study abroad, volunteer, or intern for a semester incollege or during summer breaks from school. 2. Additional Planning and Uncertainty Taking a gap year can be challenging because of all the planning it entails. When you go right into college, your path is clear and largely defined for you. When you choose a gap year, you open up a huge number of new possibilities. Within all this choice can lie a great deal of uncertainty, and uncertainty cancause anxiety and stress. If you’re taking part in a gap year program, then you may also have to go through a lengthy application process. You may have to fill out paperwork, collect documents, and write essays around the same time as you’re applying to college, doing homework, and taking the SAT. All of this extra work could put a lot of pressure on an already busy and stressful year. When considering a gap year, keep in mind that all of the extra effort and decisions that planning onerequires. When you take a gap year, you have to get in the driver's seat and navigate the next year of your life. This total independence can cause a lot of uncertainty. 3. Graduate From College a Year Later While gap years are increasingly popular, most people still go to college in the fall following high school graduation. If you take a gap year, you could feel a year behind your peers, many of whom may be sophomores when you become a freshman. You may also graduate a year later from them, unless you come up with a plan to graduate in three years. Taking a gap year is a personal choice, but you should consider whether it could make you feel like you’re behind and have to race to catch up. 4. Culture Shock If you’re planning to travel, work, or volunteer in a new city or country, you should think about the challenges of adapting to a new environment.Moving can be thrilling at first, but it also has its hardships. If you’ve never traveled away from home before, then you might experience culture shock and homesickness. Being nervous about starting anew venture is natural, but you should also be self-aware about how you’ll handle an adjustment. If your plan feels too overwhelming, then you may want to scale back and start with smaller steps. Before you fly away from home, considerthe emotional ups and downs of adjusting to a new culture. 5. Loss of Academic Momentum For the most part, studies show that students who take a gap year have high motivation when they arrive at college. However, you might find it difficult to return to an academic environment after taking a year away from the classroom. Consider whether your gap year ideacould disrupt your plans for higher education and cause you to lose momentum. Would it be refreshing, or would you find it hardto return to the school environment? While you can’t predict the future, it’s important to consider all of these potential drawbacks as you decide whether or not to take a gap year. Given these benefits and potential challenges, how can you decide about a gap year? If you have the opportunity, should you take one? Should You Take a Gap Year? Questions to Ask Yourself Once you’ve done your research and considered your options, how can you figure out whether taking a gap year is the right choice for you? Before making the leap, you should ask yourself the following three questions. Before you take a gap year, take some time to reflect on your reasons for doing so. 1. Why Do I Want to Take a Gap Year? First and foremost, you should clarify your reasons for wanting to take a gap year. What are your goals? What do you hope to gain from this experience? Where do you hope to be at the end of the year? A gap year is an opportunity to engage in activities that you care about, develop skills, contribute to society, or save money. To make the most of the year, you should develop clear goals going into it. That way you can make sure that your gap year is, as American Gap Year Association defines it, a year â€Å"on† rather than a year â€Å"off.† 2. Are My Plans Feasible? Once you’ve reflected on your goals and motivations, it’s time for a reality check. While some gap year ideas, like volunteering with orangutans in Borneo, sound like a dream come true, are theyactually feasible? What will the financial costs of your plans be? What kind of application process is required? While it’s easy to get excited about a new adventure, you also need to consider logistics, like planning and costs. Without a clear idea of what you’re getting yourself into, a plan that started out exciting could become burdensome. 3. How Will My Gap Year Affect My College Plans? Finally, you need to do some research into how taking a gap year would affect your college plans. On the logistical level, does your college allow you to defer for a year? If not, would you have to re-apply? How would this timeline affect financial aid? On a more personal level, you should think about how taking a â€Å"year on† would affect your educational momentum,as discussed above. Would you get re-motivated about your learning? Or would you find it difficult to return to the classroom? Ideally, your gap year will be full of valuable experiences that help you learn about yourself and illuminateyour academic goals. You can’t tell exactly whatthe future will bring, of course, but you should still take time to self-reflect on your plans and how they fit into your long-term plans for college and career. As you do some soul-searching about why you want to take a gap year and what it would mean for you, you should consult resources for planning a gap year. Read on for the best gap year resources for high school graduates. Remember that taking a gap year after high school means that you'll startcollege a year laterthan most of your peers. Resources to Help You Plan a Gap Year People design their gap years in a huge variety of ways. Below are some resources to help you get started, whether you’re looking for a job or a volunteer program. Idealist.org - Idealist lists a variety of job, internship, and volunteer opportunities at organizations concerned with social issues, like environmental conservation and education. When you search on the site, you can filter for results that don’t require an education level beyond high school. Snagajob.com - Snagajob offers job listings for high school students and graduates. You can find openings in industries like food and restaurant, customer service, automotive, office support, and healthcare. USA Gap Year Fairs -This website has a comprehensive list of gap year organizations, along with descriptions and links to their websites. USA Gap Year Fairs holds fairs, exhibits, and speakers in the US and Canada throughout the year. Check out the site forthe full schedule and locations of gap year fairs. Gapwork.com-Gapwork is another comprehensive organization with lots ofgap year ideas, volunteer positions, and job opportunities for students looking to take a gap year. Check out the site to learn more about gap year activities, along with useful suggestions for ways to fund your gap year. Go Overseas - Go Overseas focuses on gap year programs in variouscountries around the world. You can find all kinds of volunteer programs, internships, and jobs in far-flung destinations. American Gap Year Association (AGA) -AGA is a nonprofit that is committed to increasing participation in gap year education. They have a variety of gap year resources for students, parents, and educators, as well as a list of AGA-accredited gap year organizations. Finally, some colleges now explicitly encourage applicants to pursue a gap year before matriculating on campus. Tufts University, for instance, offers the â€Å"1 + 4 Bridge Year Service Learning Project† for accepted students, and Princeton University offers a similar â€Å"Bridge Year Program.† As you research and apply to colleges, you should talk to the admissions office about gap year opportunities and how the schoolsupport students who choose this route. In closing, let’s go over some final thoughts about what it means to take a gap year after high school. The American Gap Year Association is a big advocate for gap years. AGA is committed to increasing participation in gap years among young adults. Taking a Gap Year: Final Thoughts Gap years are becoming more and more popular among U.S. students. Several organizations, like the American Gap Year Association, are strong advocates for the personal, professional, and academic benefits of taking a gap year. According to studies, students who take a gap year return to college more motivated and more likely to graduate than their peers who go directly from high school into college. Gap years can take a number of forms, and they require a good deal of intention and planning. If you’re interested in a gap year, you should carefully consider your goals and what actions you can take to reach them. You also need to consider the financial costs of your gap year plans. If you have a well-thought out plan for taking a gap year, then you should feel confident in your decision. There is no set timeline foryour education, and going straight from high school into college definitely isn’t for everyone. Designinga meaningful gap year between high school and college could be one of the best life decisions you ever make! What’s Next? Are you interested in volunteering abroad? Check out theseguides to learn about volunteering abroad programs for high schoolers and whether they are a good choice for you. Do you have the opportunity to study abroad in high school? This comprehensive guide discusses what it means to study abroad as a high schooler. Do you know all the steps to apply to college? Check out this article to learn about the full college application process, step by step. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Free Essays on Aphrodite

Aphrodite’s Vanity Aphrodite was the goddess of love in Greece. She was also said to have been the most beautiful of all the Goddesses and to have been born from sea foam. Although she was beautiful, some saw her as treacherous and malicious. She was known to have a bewitching power over men that more times than not brought about their own destruction. Aphrodite also involved herself on several occasions with the affairs of the Gods and Goddesses on Mount Olympus, as well as the Greek mortals. Aphrodite was legendary for her beauty, but she was also very vain. It was her vanity that started the Trojan War. The day of Peleus and Thetis’s wedding ceremony, all gods and goddesses were invited to attend, all except Eris, the goddess of Discord. Feeling very insulted Eris set out revenge on the newly wed couple. She devised a plan to bring turmoil to the couple’s wedding day. When the sun set, the feast began. She waited until the last dish to roll a golden apple into the hall. Everyone took notice at the vividly sparkling apple. A wedding attendant picked it up and read the inscription â€Å"For the fairest.† All the Goddesses immediately broke out into an argument of who deserved the apple. Soon there were just three choices left Athena, Hera and Aphrodite. The three Goddesses asked Zeus to be the judge, and award the apple to the most deserving. Zeus was far too wise to involve himself in such a thing. He quickly suggested they send Hermes; messenger of the gods, to Troy where Paris, the son of King Priam could be found on Mount Ida. Because of a prophecy warning that his son would one day be the ruin of Troy, he sent Paris to live as a shepherd. Hermes appeared to Paris and told him he must travel with him to Mount Olympus where he was to perform his task for Zeus. Paris did as he was told and left Mount Ida with Hermes. He soon arrived on Olympus and was told by Zeus to award the golden apple to the fairest of the three... Free Essays on Aphrodite Free Essays on Aphrodite Aphrodite’s Vanity Aphrodite was the goddess of love in Greece. She was also said to have been the most beautiful of all the Goddesses and to have been born from sea foam. Although she was beautiful, some saw her as treacherous and malicious. She was known to have a bewitching power over men that more times than not brought about their own destruction. Aphrodite also involved herself on several occasions with the affairs of the Gods and Goddesses on Mount Olympus, as well as the Greek mortals. Aphrodite was legendary for her beauty, but she was also very vain. It was her vanity that started the Trojan War. The day of Peleus and Thetis’s wedding ceremony, all gods and goddesses were invited to attend, all except Eris, the goddess of Discord. Feeling very insulted Eris set out revenge on the newly wed couple. She devised a plan to bring turmoil to the couple’s wedding day. When the sun set, the feast began. She waited until the last dish to roll a golden apple into the hall. Everyone took notice at the vividly sparkling apple. A wedding attendant picked it up and read the inscription â€Å"For the fairest.† All the Goddesses immediately broke out into an argument of who deserved the apple. Soon there were just three choices left Athena, Hera and Aphrodite. The three Goddesses asked Zeus to be the judge, and award the apple to the most deserving. Zeus was far too wise to involve himself in such a thing. He quickly suggested they send Hermes; messenger of the gods, to Troy where Paris, the son of King Priam could be found on Mount Ida. Because of a prophecy warning that his son would one day be the ruin of Troy, he sent Paris to live as a shepherd. Hermes appeared to Paris and told him he must travel with him to Mount Olympus where he was to perform his task for Zeus. Paris did as he was told and left Mount Ida with Hermes. He soon arrived on Olympus and was told by Zeus to award the golden apple to the fairest of the three...

Dieting Sleep Essay Example

Dieting Sleep Essay Example Dieting Sleep Paper Dieting Sleep Paper Sleep is a very important activity of the day. It is a time by which people get time to rest for their tiresome activities. Sleep, according from the article â€Å"Your Guide to Healthy Sleep†, it is a time when our body is resting, doing nothing while our brains stay active doing different actions on our body. Studies show that most organisms, especially human beings use sleep as a form of rest for the whole day activity. However, the amount of sleep needed b a person varies with others. Generally speaking, infants or new – born babies require about 16 to 18 hours since that is the time when their bodies are being prepared for the upcoming activities for their growths and developments. Researches also say that the time of sleep decreases as a person grows older. Say for example the average hours of sleep of an adult ranges from 6 to 8 hours depending on his or her activities every day. Many studies, like with MedicineNet, show some examples of the advantages of a good sleep. Let us first define what a good sleep is: it does not merely depend on the quantity of sleep that we get each day but also by the quality we got for the whole time we are sleeping. A cut or skip in our sleeping time may result in a bad, irritable, less energized and long day. Since we have not slept enough, the energies needed to perform our daily activities will not be restored accurately and adequately. Moreover, we may feel restless for the time that we will be working the next hours when we wake up for a cut or short sleep. On the other hand, sleeping in an abusive manner can actually cause us disadvantages, like obesity, heart failures, and some digestive disorders. Either we obtain lack or excess of our sleeping time, the disadvantages count and can really affect the way we will handle things in the future. Say for example, call center agents or technical sales representatives who use to obtain their sleep in a different time frame can have digestive disorders due to some adjustments in their diets. Obesity is also a side – effect of sleep due to metabolism and the same goes with diabetes. It is important that we could have a complete evaluation of our habits that we are able to improve the necessary and remove the unnecessary tasks thus enabling us to achieve a healthy body and mind all throughout the day. This paper will focus on adjusting the amount of sleep I should be having every day, the reasons behind them and the possible rewards I will get for achieving my goal: to have an adequate and good quality sleep in 5 days. I used to be†¦ In evaluating my activities for the past months, I realized that I am unconsciously doing a bad habit that leads me to getting a sleep during late night; that is because I am sleeping or taking a nap in the afternoon. Having so much sleep leads me to having a heavier body. I do not feel confident anymore with the calories I am saving in the afternoon, and it is a waste of resources that I get to bu new clothes for m additional size. Let’s do the dieting Since people are designed or are used to sleep at night, I have decided to control myself from taking a nap in the afternoon and just do some productive things instead. Talking to my grandmother or having a walk with m roommates can be a good outlet of this bad habit. Gaining insights from a well experiencing woman may be rewarding itself. Since I really love being with m grandmother, it will be a fun experience to have her ever afternoon to talk to, besides, serving her would be fulfilling for me. On the other hand, my roommate is a good example of a physically fit woman: good and healthy skin, with good eye sight and good body, I guess. I already had an arrangement with her to remind me of staying awake in the afternoon so that I will be forced to do something else or to have some sharing or fellowship in the afternoon. She happened to be a prayer partner, so it is a good opportunity for sharing our hopes and wishes for each other. In order for me to achieve a physically fit body, I think I should be sleeping for about 6 – 7 sleep in a day for the whole week or even those 5 weekdays. That will not be easy since I was used to sleeping in the afternoon, but forcing myself to sleep may be a good help: doing a 10 minute meditation or by simply putting away my computer before 11 PM (such a destruction for m goal). The test or change in this behavior must take place and become successful by the end of this semester. Rewarding still Even though it will be difficult at first, I am aware that having the adequate sleep will help me improve my physical attributes also enriching my self – esteem and thus making my interaction with other people worthwhile. The benefits of the attainment of the aim of this change in my behavior can help me have my passes to Florida. I shall be giving myself some break and that is to go shopping with my roommates in Florida. We may be meeting new friends there, and we may also gain a number of experiences that will add up to the fruit of my discipline. Good and healthy body can be obtained through discipline. Since we already know the things, habits and actions that will make us physically fit, it is up to us to take the steps in achieving those. Perhaps a healthy body can also be connected with the other aspects of our lives such as with our emotional, psychological, mental and spiritual beings. Having enough energy for the next day will help us become upright and on the go. References National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. 2007. Brain Basics:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Understanding Sleep. Retrieved 21 November 2008 from  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ninds.nih.gov/disorders/brain_basics/understanding_sleep.htm Your Guide to Healthy Sleep. In MedicineNet.Inc. Retrieved 21 November 2008  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   from medicinenet.com/sleep/article.htm#tocb

Society and Fashion in the Age of Postmodernism Essay

Society and Fashion in the Age of Postmodernism - Essay Example The essay "Society and Fashion in the Age of Postmodernism" concerns the postmodernism society. Language lost its ‘meaning’, culture lost its ‘centre’ and history found itself struggling for being, let alone authenticity. Because of the work of thinkers like Derrida, Foucault and Lyotard ‘mental structures’ began to wobble; foundational assumptions came under a cloud. What is man’s role in a society? Is not he the subject of several forces including language and discourse? Can he lay claim to any ‘Truth’ when even the hyponyms of it were being questioned? Perhaps the answer to this whirlpool of uncertainty lay in his summoning up his infinite potential of creativity for a plausible answer. The one that bagged consensus was ‘celebration’. A celebration of the joke called life. Of the absurdity called existence. Everything, including architecture and fashion, responded to this interpretation. (Postmodernism may say that there are not any facts but only interpretations, but the human mind considers this as a fact). The greatest manifestation of this new-found enterprise was in the salad that combined ‘high’ and ‘low’ culture. Music strove to mix 14th century church chant with the latest in euphony. Buildings displayed gothic arches with a bunch of steel tubes to add to its effect. And in vogue were straitjackets with a naughty hint of one’s backside. Joanne Finkelstein recollects anthropologist Jonathan Friedman’s observation that in African Congo during the 70s and 80s.... The currency of the young subculture was to wear the latest in European fashion circles. Although the social and economic differences between Congo and Paris were too vast to be mentioned, the young sapeurs chose to bridge dream and reality through clothes. So much so that wearing haute couture was like realizing a dream. And this imbalance between dream and its realization, between valuing a particular object and having the capacity to possess and maintain it was a fundamental dynamic of fashion, according to Finkelstein1. However, in the 'subcultures' of Britain which included teds, punks, skinheads and hippies the dynamic of fashion was something totally different. Dick Hebdige points out that the main aim of the subcultures was to cobble out of the available forms, a new set of genres that will free them form the manacles of tradition2. However, Hebdige admits that the commercial culture itself had the wherewithal to counter the hegemonic culture by producing for the subcultures. By marrying the high with the low, the radical with the conservative, it produced a range of clothes for the punk that is still looked upon as an act of positive aggression. These two divergent theses coalesce to the synthesis that in fashion there cannot be a common protocol. At a time when 'consilience' is the order of the day and terms like 'society', 'identity' and 'nation' are themselves undergoing significant semantic changes, 'fashion' which is the signature of these terms in flux cannot remain steady and static. In postmodern zeitgeist is not only that fashion influences society but also that society influences fashion. Fashion becomes an

Compare and contrast mansa kankan musa with askiya muhammad ture as Assignment

Compare and contrast mansa kankan musa with askiya muhammad ture as rulers of their respective empires - Assignment Example Earlier on, between 1280 and 1337, another emperor had lived. He was the emperor of the wealthy Mali Empire. With a later reference to this man as Mansa Kankan Musa by the European and Arab scholars, he came to power as a deputy to the then emperor Abubakari II who decided to go on an expedition to explore the Atlantic Ocean but never came back. The first comparison is that the two were Muslims who welcomed the spread of Islam in the kingdom and built mosques everywhere for the people. In fact, Mansa Musa went for pilgrimage to mecca from time to time and when he came back, he ordered that all the five pillars of Islam be observed strictly by all the people. Askia Mohammed on the other hand, during his reign, made Islam the integral part of the empire to be observed by all the people in belonging to this great empire. Mansa came to a level of building mosques every Friday in the week so that all people could embrace the religion. The second similarity was that these two were traders and had a great commercial mind. Mansa traded his gold widely during his visits to Saudi Arabia and made himself known to the entire king along the way. However, he was not as commercialized as Askia because most of the gold he carried was based on philanthropic aid than exchanging with anything that he would take back to this kingdom. On the other hand, Askia Mohammed was a real trader. He expanded trade far and wide helping him expand the power and viability of his empire. Kankan Musa has been remembered for bringing order and peace in the empire, promoting trade and commerce. He practically made his empire to be known all over Europe for his use of gold. He developed the Mali Empire and made it an intellectual and economic center through attraction of Arab scholars for trade, religion and development. He also expanded his territory especially on his way to mecca. Similarly, Askia Mohammed expanded his empire from Tangaza in the north, all the way to Yatenga borders

Independent evaluation of agile methods Literature review

Independent evaluation of agile methods - Literature review Example Teams looking for an appropriate way of monitoring scope and at the same time enhance project implementation timelines look to agile project management. This method assists firms attain a healthy balance between waste reduction, cost cutting and quality preservation (Patel, Seyfi, Taghavi, Wills, Liu, Latih, & Misra, 2012). While conveying value to the buyer in a cost efficient way, agile project administration sustains the intricacies of the projects in a way that the conventional systems would not have in any way. Agile methods can help teams dispense products more swiftly while making them acclimatize to vicissitudes more easily than when they would have used the traditional methods (Maarit, Outi, & Pekka, 2010). The other benefits of agile methods of project management are that it cuts the time spent on information gathering while also enhancing implementation timelines. Agile project management simplifies teamwork and group effort enhancing overhead costs involved in project implementation. Agile project management is an adaptive approach that stresses on collaborative work or in other words revolutionary driven work done which demands team work in its execution and a continuing involvement of interested parties in the project cycles. The response of the interested parties is crucial during the execution process of the project when the end consequence is indefinite in some extent. In such an environment, the collaborations are inducted in every stage. This is important because it permits to reexamine the project on the basis of the interested parties’ feedback and reallocate work in the project accordingly. Working progressively gives room for the teams to stay on track and also for the consumers to attain what they need without the risk of profligacy (Qureshi, 2012). The Agile method of project management encompasses a number of factors making it conceivable for agile management teams to

Police officers with TBIs & PTSD, cause and effect Research Paper

Police officers with TBIs & PTSD, cause and effect - Research Paper Example Similarly, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is another mental disorder that is occasioned by constant violent events in the life of an officer. Members of the police service are likely to come across such incidents during the course of their practice. For instance, constant exposure bloodshed, deaths and inhuman treatment of some members of a community are likely to trigger PTSD in police officers. Symptoms of PTSD may encompass flashbacks, hallucinations and severe nervousness as well as irrepressible imaginations about the occurrence. Many police officers who experience traumatic occurrences such as bloodshed often have difficulty coping after such incidents, but they do not have PTSD. However, over time and with good self-care, such officers usually recover. But in the event that the symptoms degenerate into worse episodes running for many months or even years, to an extent that they impede the normal functioning of the brain, the agents in question may develop PTSD (French, & Parkinson, 2008). As such, providing the officers with appropriate care immediately they show symptoms of TBI and or PTSD can be an important to control of the symptoms and the subsequent improvement of the normal functioning of the brain. A police agent may develop PTSD after an episode of TBI or after experiencing a violent incident happen to a third party or after being subjected to long periods of distress that he or she could not withstand (Miller, 2006). Unlike TBI which is caused by physical shock to the head and brain during police training or in actual law enforcement processes, PTSD is caused by two primary factors: first, the public perceptions about a violent mission in which police officers had a hand, especially since the media criticism of police actions became commonplace in the 21st century. The negative perceptions the public have on the police can be one

EH 1010-08H ENGLISH COMPOSITION I (EH1010-08H) Essay

EH 1010-08H ENGLISH COMPOSITION I (EH1010-08H) - Essay Example It should be noted that not only the patient or the victim of smoke is at a loss from his body deprivation point of view but also his chances of suffering an injury instantaneously are quite viable. As debated before, many kinds of ailments might creep up with the passage of time circumscribing diseases such as cancer, lung-related problems and throat malignancies to name a few. [Jacobson, 1997] Peer smoking has been found out as one of the mainstays in keeping up to the smoking habit. People who are discouraged to smoke find solace when they see their near and dear ones doing the same, thus allowing themselves just about any rationale to follow upon and continue with the smoking loom. Certain discussions have also been concluded on the fact that parents generally do not have any idea on how to combat smoking so that their wards can keep off this habit from themselves. [Chase, 1995] They (parents) find certain ways in which their young ones do not readily catch up on the already present bandwagon of adopting a cigarette to relieve their tensions and thus allowing just about every harmful drug into their body with

SUPPLY CHANGE Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

SUPPLY CHANGE - Assignment Example Supply chain management refers to the logistics involved in managing the processes involved in availing goods from the producer to the end user. It involves efficient management of resources such as time, labor and finance to ensure that goods reach the end user (Hugos 4). Supply chain management is important for top management as it allows an organization to distribute resources in the best way possible to ensure an organization achieves its goals. It helps an organization to structure policies that will ensure that the supply chain endeavors are achieved. Supply chain management involves designing, planning, execution and monitoring supply chain activities to create value on goods that reach the consumers. Supply chain integration is difficult in the global supply chain because of various challenges, which range from cultural, technological, political cultural and logistic differences. The global supply chain is hindered by these differences because they will affect how good reach the consumers since different countries will have different rules that govern the supply chain. This means that a customers request may not be fulfilled due to the differences hence making global supply chain management

Police officers with TBIs & PTSD, cause and effect Research Paper

Police officers with TBIs & PTSD, cause and effect - Research Paper Example Similarly, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is another mental disorder that is occasioned by constant violent events in the life of an officer. Members of the police service are likely to come across such incidents during the course of their practice. For instance, constant exposure bloodshed, deaths and inhuman treatment of some members of a community are likely to trigger PTSD in police officers. Symptoms of PTSD may encompass flashbacks, hallucinations and severe nervousness as well as irrepressible imaginations about the occurrence. Many police officers who experience traumatic occurrences such as bloodshed often have difficulty coping after such incidents, but they do not have PTSD. However, over time and with good self-care, such officers usually recover. But in the event that the symptoms degenerate into worse episodes running for many months or even years, to an extent that they impede the normal functioning of the brain, the agents in question may develop PTSD (French, & Parkinson, 2008). As such, providing the officers with appropriate care immediately they show symptoms of TBI and or PTSD can be an important to control of the symptoms and the subsequent improvement of the normal functioning of the brain. A police agent may develop PTSD after an episode of TBI or after experiencing a violent incident happen to a third party or after being subjected to long periods of distress that he or she could not withstand (Miller, 2006). Unlike TBI which is caused by physical shock to the head and brain during police training or in actual law enforcement processes, PTSD is caused by two primary factors: first, the public perceptions about a violent mission in which police officers had a hand, especially since the media criticism of police actions became commonplace in the 21st century. The negative perceptions the public have on the police can be one

SUPPLY CHANGE Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

SUPPLY CHANGE - Assignment Example Supply chain management refers to the logistics involved in managing the processes involved in availing goods from the producer to the end user. It involves efficient management of resources such as time, labor and finance to ensure that goods reach the end user (Hugos 4). Supply chain management is important for top management as it allows an organization to distribute resources in the best way possible to ensure an organization achieves its goals. It helps an organization to structure policies that will ensure that the supply chain endeavors are achieved. Supply chain management involves designing, planning, execution and monitoring supply chain activities to create value on goods that reach the consumers. Supply chain integration is difficult in the global supply chain because of various challenges, which range from cultural, technological, political cultural and logistic differences. The global supply chain is hindered by these differences because they will affect how good reach the consumers since different countries will have different rules that govern the supply chain. This means that a customers request may not be fulfilled due to the differences hence making global supply chain management

Into Thin Air Analysis Essay Example for Free

Into Thin Air Analysis Essay â€Å"Brilliant. Vertiginously exciting†¦vibrantly imagined. An achievement of extraordinary depth and beauty of the natural world.† –Raul Dagmar Into Thin Air is based on a true story seen through the eyes of Jon Krakauer. He is a journalist and mountain climber who decides to climb the treacherous Mount Everest and joins the most disastrous expedition in history. Krakauer mixes in with the climbing service called Adventure Consultants, which is guided by Rob Hall who is also responsible for the lives of ten other climbers. The climb is structured into camps: Base Camp, Camp One, Camp Two, Camp Three and Camp Four. After spending weeks at Base Camp, the group makes a number of trips up to the other camps to speed up the acclimatization process. Throughout the climb to the summit, Krakauer significantly details his teammates, his guides and other expeditions on the mountain. He tries to link together a continuous timeline of the events that take place in the weeks they are on the mountain. Everest is a bare and harsh land. All of the clients have difficulty adjusting to the altitude, tiring easily and losing oxygen. The climbers experience in mountain climbing and at high altitudes varies—some of them are qualified while others very inexperienced and highly dependent on the guides. Will they survive? â€Å"†¦[Krakauer] reveals that the human spirit has infinite ability to grow and can never be limited by circumstance. It will change the way you look at the obstacles of your own life and the American Dream.† -Henry David Thoreau

Public Goods In South African Agriculture Economics Essay

Public Goods In South African Agriculture Economics Essay Public goods are goods that are produced in order to serve communities, where all members of the community are served equally. This is possible since the consumption by one member of a community does not decrease the quantity or quality of the public good for another member of the community. In it pure form, public goods can therefore not be divided into pieces for every member of the community, but is a collective good, being indivisible. (Loehr Sandler, 1978, p. 12) To produce these public goods in a manner that will serve the communities that needs it and to allocate public goods efficient, policies are used to provide the structure. These policies are installed by government in order to correct the failure of the market. In order to understand this interrelation between market failure, government intervention, policies and private goods, one should start at the beginning, namely market failure. This should originally be the reason why there is government intervention by means of policies. In this paper market failure will be used to start the argument on policies on public goods in agriculture. Government intervention through policies to correct the malfunction of the market will be discussed after which there will be a discussion on public goods in agriculture as a result of the above mentioned and how these public goods are delivered in agriculture. Market Failure and Government Intervention 2.1 What Market Failure is Market failure exists when the market are unable to produce at a level which is Pareto optimal, Pareto optimality being a position in the market where one person in the market cannot be better off without at least one other person in the market being worse off. (Loehr Sandler, 1978, p. 11) According to Philip Black in Public Economics for South African students (2003, pp. 21-23) there are six reasons for market failures. Lack of Information A lack of information can cause market failure, since the information available to customers and producers are not necessarily at a level to equip them to make rational decisions. A possible solution to this problem is that governments should provide this information to society, but by definition private institutions are driven by profit, making them better at obtaining and distributing information than government agencies. (Black, Calitz, Steenekamp, 2003, pp. 21-22) Lags in Adjustments Lags in the adjustment of markets exist, even if lack of information is not the only reason. Time lagging can also occur if resources are not very mobile, meaning that it cannot adapt instantly to new information. Labour, for example, can only move from one job to another with some time passing, even though new job opportunities are available. Physical capital, like machinery, cannot be moved from one place to another at any moment, but can only happen at highly irregular time periods. (Black, Calitz, Steenekamp, 2003, p. 22) Incomplete Markets When supply of certain products cannot meet the demand for those products, incomplete markets arise. For these reason public goods, such as street lighting, defence security, etc. is installed. Markets can also not take full responsibility for the external cost and benefits that are associated with individual behaviour and therefore markets are incomplete. (Black, Calitz, Steenekamp, 2003, p. 22) Non-competitive Markets Markets fail when it is characterised by non-competitiveness. By this, which happens more often than not, is meant that the competitiveness is taken out of the market. These reasons are monopolies and oligopolies in commodity markets, minimum wage restrictions on labour, and many more. (Black, Calitz, Steenekamp, 2003, p. 22) Macroeconomic Instability Markets can fail because of instability in the economys macro environment. The macro environment includes attacks on the countrys currency and other factors. This macroeconomic instability can cause markets to take too long to adjust to the exogenous shocks and government intervention through policy might be needed to rescue the situation. (Black, Calitz, Steenekamp, 2003, pp. 22-23) Distribution of Income The distribution of income is and will probably never be reasonable and fair in a sense that it will be satisfactory to the wide community or government which represents that community. Therefore Pareto optimality in the allocation of resources will not happen, thus leading to classification of market failure. This issue of skew distribution of wealth has been addressed by governments by creating wealth in a growing population through policy. (Black, Calitz, Steenekamp, 2003, p. 23) Government Intervention Government intervention in the market can be done in three different ways, the approaches being an allocative function, distributive function, and stabilisation function. Allocative Function The allocative function of governments who are intervening in the market is to address the issues of incomplete markets and non-competitive markets, as discussed previously. Through direct intervention in the market, governments can correct incomplete markets, such as supplying street lights, etc. Through indirect government, also known as the regulatory function of the government, non-competitive markets are regulated, with policies such as the competition policy which is intended to prevent monopolies from acting abusive. (Black, Calitz, Steenekamp, 2003, pp. 24,26) Distributive Function This function of the government is especially angled at the market failure of income distribution. The government use a model to determine how it should spread wealth. This models outcome is positively correlated with the participants in the markets original distribution of labour and capital. This model, however, is does not determine how fair this distribution is. This distributive function of the government comes in the form of direct intervention in the market through taxes and as a regulatory function it makes use if subsidies and transfer payments. (Black, Calitz, Steenekamp, 2003, pp. 24-26) Stabilisation Function To correct the market failure of the inability of the economy to react adequately to macro environment factors, governments intervene by means of its stabilisation function. Stabilisation of the market to reach the macroeconomic objectives is also part of this function. The appropriate monetary and fiscal policy would be installed by government to keep the market from failing to accomplish price stability, an acceptable economic growth rate, sound balance of payments, etc. This can be done through direct intervention in the market as well as through a regulatory function where indirect taxes and subsidies help to achieve fiscal objectives indirectly. (Black, Calitz, Steenekamp, 2003, pp. 25-26) Public Goods in General Types of Goods There are two properties that indicate the type of goods, namely excludability and rivalry. These two properties can be used in a table form (see Table 1) in order to differentiate Private goods, Common goods, Club goods, and Public goods from each other. Table : Different types of goods (Solum, 2009) From Table 1 the following can be drawn: Private goods are goods where the benefits are fully rival and excludable, for example fuel. Common goods are goods where the benefits are rival but non-excludable, for example fish. Club goods are goods where the benefits are non-rivalry but excludable, for example cinemas. Public goods are goods where the benefits are non-rivalry and non-excludable, for example national defence. Common goods and Club goods are part of the larger impure public goods group, since in pure form they do not have excludability or rivalry. Pure private goods are therefore goods of which the benefits are pure rival and excludable. Pure public goods are thus goods of which the benefits are pure non-rival and non-excludable. (Cornes Sandler, 1986, pp. 6-7) Characteristics of Public Goods There are 5 characteristics of public goods that will be discussed, two of which defines it from other type of goods, as mentioned above. Non-rival Public goods are non-rival, meaning that consumption by one person does not influence the consumption by another person. There is therefore no competition between consumers for the use of the specific product. (Moeti, Khalo, Mafunisa, Makondo, Nsingo, 2007, p. 24) Non-excludable Public goods are non-excludable, making it practically impossible to abstain it from one person if it is allowed for another. The problem that comes with non-excludability is the free-rider problem, where people who do not pay for the product still benefit from it, since they cannot get excluded from it. It is therefore necessary for governments to intervene and produce these products, since it cannot be produced profitably by the private sector. (Moeti, Khalo, Mafunisa, Makondo, Nsingo, 2007, p. 24) Non-apportionable Public goods are non-apportionable since it cannot be measured in order to provide it in units which can have a price attached to it and sold for that price. In this case, it is possible for water to be either a public good or not, since water can be made available to a whole community at no charge or it can be sold in bottles in a shop. (Moeti, Khalo, Mafunisa, Makondo, Nsingo, 2007, p. 24) Monopolistic Public goods can be monopolistic, making it products where there is only one role player in the market, namely the government. Governments can produce the goods that the public demand by making use of the structure of a natural monopoly. In a natural monopoly it is more efficient to have only one player (producer) in the market than more than one. (Moeti, Khalo, Mafunisa, Makondo, Nsingo, 2007, p. 25) No Direct Quid Pro Quo Quid pro quo is a Latin term which means something for something. Public goods are therefore goods with no direct quid pro quo, meaning no something for something, it this case a public good in return for money (quid pro quo is very much applicable for private goods). By paying taxes, tax payers do not receive public goods to the same value of the tax they paid, but receive whatever any other person receives, irrespective of the amount of tax they pay. Progressive scales for taxes and fiscal spending are installed in order to guide the receiving and spending of tax money of public goods. (Moeti, Khalo, Mafunisa, Makondo, Nsingo, 2007, p. 25) Public Policies Theory on Public Policy towards Externalities Externalities can cause markets to allocate resources in an insufficient way, externalities being the impact of one persons actions on a bystanders wellbeing without compensating the bystander for it. To correct the cause of externalities, governments can make use of command-and-control policies by which behaviour is directly regulated, or it can make use of market-based policies which is indirect and provides incentive to decision makers to correct the problem themselves. (Mankiw Taylor, 2006, pp. 198,464) Direct Regulation of Externalities By regulating the market directly, governments enforce certain boundaries or restrictions onto role players in the market in order to counter externalities. For example, by installing an upper limit on the amount of pollution that a factory is allowed, governments adopt a command-and-control policy. (Mankiw Taylor, 2006, p. 198) Indirect Regulation of Externalities By indirectly regulating the market, governments make use of market-based policies to counter an externality. In doing this, governments provide better alignment of private incentives with social efficiency at a lower cost to society. Pigovian taxes, named after Arthur Pigou, are taxes which are used to counter the effect of negative externalities. By this method of taxing, pollution, as the example is in the direct regulation of externalities, will be taxed per unit of pollution. The more the factory pollutes, the higher the tax payment and therefore this method creates an incentive to pollute less, since it decreases profit. (Mankiw Taylor, 2006, pp. 198-199) Policies on Public Goods Richard Cornes and Todd Sandler argues in their book, The Theory of Externalities, Public Goods, and Club Goods (1986, p. 69) that public goods in its pure form a special case of an externality is. This would mean that the policies on public goods should be aligned with the policies on externalities discussed in the previous section, namely command-and-control policies and market-based policies. In this section it will become clear whether that is the case as well as what exactly the policy methods are that are used for public goods. According to Leonard Champney (1988, p. 989)in his article, Public Goods and Policy Types, governments can either make use of regulation policies, where the incentives of the government are coercive, or of distribution policies, where the incentives of the government are economic. Coercive can be defined as intimidating people to comply. By further looking at the difference between productive indivisibilities and consumptive indivisibilities, it will be possible to describe the eight types of policies that Champney refers to in his paper. Champney describes productive indivisibilities as products that are produced for one, and because of the indivisibility of public goods, is therefore produced for all. An example of a productive indivisibility product produced by government is a light house. Consumptive indivisibility refers to the consumption of a product produced by government where the consumption by one has a positive influence on others, even though they are excluded from the direct consumption. An example of a consumptive indivisible product produced by government is education. The government can choose to whom education is made available to consume, but the whole society will benefit from it, being more politically stable, economically productive, and technologically advanced. Governments can decide to produc e productive indivisibilities or consumptive indivisibilities. (Champney, 1988, p. 988) Now the eight types of policies can be illustrated and discussed. Table : Government policies for individual targets Table : Government policies for group targets (Champney, 1988, p. 989) Type 1: Internal and External Security Products produced under Type 1 are productive indivisible products and is enforced through regulation onto individuals; the government thus make use of coercive powers as a monopoly and use taxation of individuals (compulsory) to pay for the public goods. Example: national defence. (Champney, 1988, pp. 989-990) Type 2: Compulsory Education Products produce under Type 2 are consumptive indivisible and is enforced through regulation onto individuals. Public goods, such as education which is forced onto young people, are type 2 public goods, since they (the young people) are forced to consume the product. Also, occupational licensure plays a role to ensure that an incompetent physician do not give medical care so that the whole community are forced to consume this product which have indivisible consequences. (Champney, 1988, p. 990) Type 3: Subsidies to Individuals Governments are able to move away from regulatory policies by making use of compulsory taxation in order to provide distributive policies which are more economically aligned. Direct subsidies to individuals, which are productive indivisible and distributive, are type 3 products. Example: soldiers get paid for their duty instead of being forced to enrol. (Champney, 1988, p. 990) Type 4: Subsidies to Individuals Type 4 subsidies to individuals are subsidies which are consumptive indivisible and distributive, therefore being promoting the consumption of a product by means of a subsidy. An example of this is grants for individuals to further their studies to a higher education level. (Champney, 1988, p. 990) Type 5: Environmental Regulations Groups are targeted with this type. Environmental regulations are regulative and productive indivisible by nature. Governments make use of this type of policy to attempt to make the environment better. As an example, corporations must comply with the limit that a government sets on pollution of air and water. (Champney, 1988, p. 990) Type 6: Regulation of Natural Monopoly Regulation of natural monopolies are done by governments in order to assure that provision of a good or service is reasonable and not subject to price setting, price discrimination, and other destructive activities. These types of consumptive indivisible and regulated products are often products which the economy cannot run properly without, such as communication services, and for which there are no substitutes readily available. (Champney, 1988, p. 990) Type 7: Subsidies to Corporations Type 7 subsidies are subsidies to corporations which are productive indivisible and are executed by the distribution function of the government. These subsidies are given to corporations directly or indirectly for leading activities which helps with the production of public goods. An example will be a subsidy to a corporation which produces weapons for usage in a public service, namely the military force. (Champney, 1988, p. 990) Type 8: Subsidies to Research Development Consumptive goods which are indivisible and promoted by distribution form the last of the eight types. By giving subsidies/grants, the government ensures that the necessary research and development is done in order to provide communication services and transportation in the economy. The objective is to give subsidies/grants to key strategic industries, which other sectors in the economy depend on, to do research and development. Through the subsidising of research and development, technical knowledge spreads throughout societies. An example will be subsidies for agricultural RD. (Champney, 1988, p. 990) South African agriculture Public goods in South African agriculture Public goods or services provided by the South African government include a list of 55 services under its Department of Agriculture (see Annexure A). These services are available under the five programmes of the Department of Agriculture (DoA), namely: Administration Livelihoods, Economics and Business Development Bio-security and Disaster Management Production and Resources Management Sector Services and Partnerships (DoA, 2009, pp. 18, 64-65) The purpose and budget of each of these programmes will be discussed. Administration The administration programme of the DoA provides the overall administrative as well as performance overview, with a focus on strategic leadership and management in die DoA. Capital investments are also managed under Administration. This programme had a budget of R 301 627 000 for the financial year 1 April 2008 to 31 March 2009. (DoA, 2009, pp. 24, 29) Livelihoods, Economic and Business Development Food security for households, shared growth and commercial viability for emerging farmers are the objective of the programme. To achieve the objective, this programme makes use of targeted programmes and appropriate policies in the agricultural sector in order to support equitable access to this sector, which in return will make it possible to achieve its (the programmes) objective. This programme had a budget of R 751 451 000 for the financial year 1 April 2008 to 31 March 2009. This money was allocated in the following manner to the subsections of this programme: Management R 1 208 000 Livelihoods Development Support R 604 056 000 Trade and Business Development R 92 461 000 Economic and Statistical Services R 31 267 000 National Agricultural Marketing Council R 22 459 000 (DoA, 2009, pp. 18, 80) Livelihoods Development Support as a sub-programme of Livelihoods, Economic and Business Development, contribute to communities by supporting them through public goods/services, which includes policies, norms, programmes, legislation and information in order to provide post-settlement support to emerging farmers, finance agricultural development, promote farmer cooperatives, start village banks and provide food security. The largest part of the budget for this sub-programme was spent on transfers to provinces and municipalities where they used this money, amongst other programmes, under the Comprehensive Agricultural Support Programme. (DoA, 2009, pp. 34, 81) Trade and Business Development aids the process of making international and domestic markets more accessible by South African products, promotes BEE in agriculture and interacts with National Agricultural Marketing Council (NAMC). The largest part of this budget goes towards transfers to public entities, such as the ArgiBEE Charter Council and NAMC. (DoA, 2009, pp. 8, 34) Economic and Statistical Services grant money in order to aid the process of collecting and analysing agricultural statistics as well as interact with Statistics South Africa. This sub-programme is also responsible for monitoring and evaluating the economic performance of the agricultural sector, with reports on the economic performance issued quarterly. (DoA, 2009, p. 34) NAMC as a part of the budget for Livelihoods, Economic and Business Development solely focus on statutory measures in agriculture. The changes to the constitutional measures are presented to the Minister of Agriculture and are done by NAMC. The application of these constitutional measures is also revised every two years and presented to the Minister of Agriculture. (DoA, 2009, p. 15) Bio-security and Disaster Management This programme of the DoA main functions are to manage the risks involved in animal diseases, plant pests and GMOs as well as to handle the registration of products that are used in the agricultural field. This is done to safeguard human health and to ensure food safety and security. Reducing the risks of natural disasters through management planning of agricultural risk and disasters is also part of the programme. This programme can be divided into two sub-programmes, excluding general management: Management R 1 551 000 Plant Health and Inspection Services R 138 225 000 Food, Animal Health and Disaster Management R 470 367 000 (DoA, 2009, pp. 43, 82) The Plant Health and Inspection Services sub-programme is responsible for the development of systems and policies in order to manage the risks involved with plant pests and diseases and GMOs. These systems and policies are also developed to enhance the trading of products of plant origin, to manage the movement of regulated articles and good quality control of regulated products. The largest part of this sub-programmes budget goes towards employee compensation and the goods and services provided. (DoA, 2009, pp. 43, 83) The management of food, health and disasters by this sub-programme consists of the reduction and management of risk with which animal diseases are associated. It also manages the promotion of trading in animal products of origin and ensures food safety. Lastly it entails the development of management strategies for agricultural risks and disasters. Disaster management is the most significant part of the transfers to provinces and municipalities as well as to households. (DoA, 2009, pp. 43, 83) Production and Resource Management The sustainable use and protection of water and land is important to this programme of the DoA. Through this programme this objectives are strived towards by the identification of opportunities and development of strategies for the agricultural sector to be profitable and to optimise agricultural productivity. The sub-programmes are Agricultural Production, and Engineering Services and Resource Management. The budget for are allocated as follows: Management R 1 525 000 Agricultural Production R 275 734 000 Engineering, Energy, Resource Use and Management R 202 778 000 (DoA, 2009, pp. 47, 84) Agricultural Production, as a sub-programme, focuses on assisting the process of improving agricultural productivity, especially in the field of sustainable aquaculture, animal, and plant systems. This sub-programme is also responsible for administrating various acts that apply to this field. The largest part of the budget for Agricultural Production goes towards provinces and municipalities for programmes in the different regions. (DoA, 2009, p. 47) The Engineering Services and Resource Management sub-programme has a treble focus, namely to assist infrastructure development in agriculture, to facilitate agricultural resource use, and to promote the community-based programme, LandCare. The facilitation of agricultural resource use includes the auditing of natural resources, the control of migratory pests, as well as agricultural land protection and rehabilitation. The largest single expense is the LandCare Programme. (DoA, 2009, pp. 47, 66) Sector Services and Partnerships This programme ultimately consists of two parts, the one focusing of services to the sector, the other on partnership with parties outside the sector. The purpose of this programme is therefore to execute the work set out for each of its sub-programmes, the sub-programmes being Sector Services, and International, Intergovernmental and Stakeholder Relations. Together with the management of this programme and the Agricultural Research Council, this above mentioned two sub-programmes forms the core around which the Sector Services and Partnerships budget is spent. Spending is allocated as follows: Management R 10 691 000 Sector Services R 196 518 000 International, Intergovernmental and Stakeholder Relations R 72 370 000 Agricultural Research Council (ARC) R 514 556 000 (DoA, 2009, pp. 51, 86) Sector services as a sub-programme provide direction and support to education, training, extension, research and advisory services in agriculture. The purpose of this service is to support the targeted groups. Managing of the funds transferred to the ARC is also part of Sector Services. The largest part of the budget for Agricultural Production goes towards provinces and municipalities for programmes in the different regions. (DoA, 2009, pp. 51, 86) International, Intergovernmental and Stakeholder Relations as a sub-programme supply leadership and coordination in agricultural international relations. Furthermore is the purpose to create an environment in which all stakeholders can have a positive relationship. Budget is mostly spent on compensation to employees, and foreign governments and international organisations. (DoA, 2009, pp. 51, ) Policy on public goods in South African agriculture The policies in place on public goods in the South African agriculture are policies which promote government spending on various programmes, goods, and services. The way in which this government spending is allocated is described in the previous section under the five programmes of the Department of Agriculture of the South African Government. Each of the five programmes has a very distinct role to play in order to execute the policies that are in place in agriculture. In this section the public goods and services which have the largest amount of money allocated to them will be discussed, as well as the five public entities which report directly to the Minister of Agriculture. From this discussion the policies for implementing the use of these public goods and services in South African agriculture will become clear. Policy types for the top 5 public goods and services in the DoA budget The different types of policies that are used to implement the top five items of highest spending in the DoA budget will be discussed. Two of them will be discussed together. See Annexure B for a complete list. Agricultural Research Council (ARC) R 514 556 000 was allocated to the ARC in the 1 April 2008 31 March 2009 financial year. This public service establishes and controls research, development, and the transfer of technology facilities in order to provide the private sector in agriculture with information. ARC is also promoting cooperation between other countries and South Africa with regards to the above mentioned. (DoA, 2009, pp. 15, 67) The type of policy that is used is a type 8 according to Champney, namely Subsidies to Research and Development, which are promoted by distribution (economic incentive) and are consumptive indivisible (consumption by one influence other in community positively). The ARC therefore plays an important role in providing facilities, such as research, development and transfer of technology in order to contribute to the agricultural sector. (Champney, 1988, p. 990) Comprehensive Agricultural Support Programme (CASP) and CASP Extension Services During the 2008-2009 financial year R 438 124 000 was budgeted for CASP and R 100 000 000 for CASP Extension Services. These two budget items are spent together, thus R 538 124 000. CASP Extension Services are the fourth largest item in die DoA budget. By this programmes, the DoA primarily wants to support the targeted beneficiaries from the land and agrarian programmes implemented by the DoA. By granting money to CASP, the DoA wishes to install improvement in 6 areas, namely: The access to and quality of agricultural support services available to the targeted beneficiaries of land and agrarian programmes, such as advice and information, financial infrastructure, etc., The ability of the DoA to deliver the above mentioned agricultural support services, The number of beneficiaries to benefit from accessing agricultural support services, The timeliness of technical and market information available to resource-poor farmers, The infrastructure available to targeted beneficiaries, on and off the farm, e.g. dipping and fencing, The number of LRAD reform beneficiaries accessing market information, markets and training for markets. (DoA, 2009, pp. 27-28) The policy type that would suit the grants given to the above mentioned improvements can be categorised as type 4 Subsidies to Individuals according to Champney. These grants are targeting individuals, such as the beneficiaries from the land and agrarian programmes, and are consumptive indivisible, since the consumption (use) of these land and agrarian programmes is promoted by grants available to beneficiaries. (Champney, 1988, p. 990) Classical Swine Fever A budget of R 163 900 000 was allocated to the control of classical swine fever breakouts and the necessary compensation to households when animals are killed in order to remove classical swine fever from of area. (DoA, 2009, pp. 4, 67, 138) The type of policy that is used to implement this service to public is a type 4, according to Champneys model. Subsidies to Individuals as a type of policy suit this case, because the individuals whose pigs are slaughtered in order to restrict the spreading of the disease are compensated by means of payment, which is correlated with the number of pigs slaughtered. There is therefore an incentive for farmers who have infected pigs to have them slaughtered, since th

The Republic Of Colombia Essay -- essays research papers

The Republic of Colombia is the fourth largest country in South America. It is located at the north-western tip of the continent. Its neighbors are Brazil and Venezuela to the east, Panama to the north-west, and Ecuador and Peru to the south. Colombia is the only South American country that's coast is on the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. There are eight islands under Colombian rule, and they are San Andres, Providencia, San Bernado, Islas del Rosario, Isla Fuerte, Gorgona, Gorgonilla, and Malpelo. Colombia's terrain is about 45% mountainous. The major mountain chain is the Andes, which is the longest and second highest mountain chain in the world. The are three mountain ranges in Colombia that form the Andes. These are known as Cordilleras, which means range. The Cordillera Occidental is 680 miles long and is about 6,500 ft. high. This range is on the western area that stretches from the equator to the Caribbean Sea. The Cordillera Oriental is the longest range, at 750 miles long, and 8,530 ft. high and it cuts from northern Colombia to southern Colombia. The Cordillera Central is located in the center of the country and is 689 miles long and 10,827 ft. high making it the highest cordillera. The highest mountain point in Colombia is the Sierra Nevada at 19,055 ft. high. There are lots of volcanoes in Colombia. The Cumbal is 17,500 ft. high, the Chiles is 16,900 ft. high, the Purace is 17,060 ft. high, and the Pan de Azucar is 16,840 ft. high. The eastern region of Colombia is a grassy lowland. 1/6 of Colombia is uninhabited glacier land, and 1/5 is high plateau. Colombia has many rivers. The most important river is the Magdalena which is 965 miles long and flows north to the Caribbean Sea. Others are the Meta, the Amazon, the Guaviare, and the Putamayo. There aren't many lakes in Colombia. The largest lake in Colombia is Lake Cocha and is not very important. If it wasn't for the Andes mountain location, Colombia would have an extremely high climate since it is near the equator. However, Colombia's climate is strictly related to the altitude of the land and varies greatly from section to section. The hot region of Colombia has an average temperature of 75 degrees Fahrenheit, and are from sea level to three thousand feet. This area is along the Pacific coast and in the eastern jungle region. Regions ... ...uela and Colombia were united to form the Greater Colombian Confederation. Simon Bolivar was President. In 1830, the Confederation ended because Venezuela wanted independence. Today, Colombia is a parliamentary republic with presidential elections held every four years. The congress holds sessions every year between July and December and consists of two houses the Chamber of Deputies, which has 131 elected members, and the Senate with 63 members. The President appoints cabinet members and cheifs of administrations. Colombia is divided into 23 departments, and the president appoints a governer to head each department. The current president is Cesar Gaviria Trujillo. Colombia's population today is approximately 34,296,000. 95% of these people are Roman Catholic. The capital, Bogota has an estimated 4,921,00 people, and the second largest city, Cali, has 1,624,00 people. After Mexico and Brazil, Colombia is the third most populolus country in Latin America.3 About one half of the population today is mestizo, a mixture of Indian and European descent.4 Europeans are about one fifth of the population, and and there are some blacks, and about 400 Indian tribes. The Republic Of Colombia Essay -- essays research papers The Republic of Colombia is the fourth largest country in South America. It is located at the north-western tip of the continent. Its neighbors are Brazil and Venezuela to the east, Panama to the north-west, and Ecuador and Peru to the south. Colombia is the only South American country that's coast is on the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. There are eight islands under Colombian rule, and they are San Andres, Providencia, San Bernado, Islas del Rosario, Isla Fuerte, Gorgona, Gorgonilla, and Malpelo. Colombia's terrain is about 45% mountainous. The major mountain chain is the Andes, which is the longest and second highest mountain chain in the world. The are three mountain ranges in Colombia that form the Andes. These are known as Cordilleras, which means range. The Cordillera Occidental is 680 miles long and is about 6,500 ft. high. This range is on the western area that stretches from the equator to the Caribbean Sea. The Cordillera Oriental is the longest range, at 750 miles long, and 8,530 ft. high and it cuts from northern Colombia to southern Colombia. The Cordillera Central is located in the center of the country and is 689 miles long and 10,827 ft. high making it the highest cordillera. The highest mountain point in Colombia is the Sierra Nevada at 19,055 ft. high. There are lots of volcanoes in Colombia. The Cumbal is 17,500 ft. high, the Chiles is 16,900 ft. high, the Purace is 17,060 ft. high, and the Pan de Azucar is 16,840 ft. high. The eastern region of Colombia is a grassy lowland. 1/6 of Colombia is uninhabited glacier land, and 1/5 is high plateau. Colombia has many rivers. The most important river is the Magdalena which is 965 miles long and flows north to the Caribbean Sea. Others are the Meta, the Amazon, the Guaviare, and the Putamayo. There aren't many lakes in Colombia. The largest lake in Colombia is Lake Cocha and is not very important. If it wasn't for the Andes mountain location, Colombia would have an extremely high climate since it is near the equator. However, Colombia's climate is strictly related to the altitude of the land and varies greatly from section to section. The hot region of Colombia has an average temperature of 75 degrees Fahrenheit, and are from sea level to three thousand feet. This area is along the Pacific coast and in the eastern jungle region. Regions ... ...uela and Colombia were united to form the Greater Colombian Confederation. Simon Bolivar was President. In 1830, the Confederation ended because Venezuela wanted independence. Today, Colombia is a parliamentary republic with presidential elections held every four years. The congress holds sessions every year between July and December and consists of two houses the Chamber of Deputies, which has 131 elected members, and the Senate with 63 members. The President appoints cabinet members and cheifs of administrations. Colombia is divided into 23 departments, and the president appoints a governer to head each department. The current president is Cesar Gaviria Trujillo. Colombia's population today is approximately 34,296,000. 95% of these people are Roman Catholic. The capital, Bogota has an estimated 4,921,00 people, and the second largest city, Cali, has 1,624,00 people. After Mexico and Brazil, Colombia is the third most populolus country in Latin America.3 About one half of the population today is mestizo, a mixture of Indian and European descent.4 Europeans are about one fifth of the population, and and there are some blacks, and about 400 Indian tribes.